% $Id: faq-bits+pieces.tex,v 1.31 2012/12/07 19:34:33 rf10 Exp rf10 $

\section{Bits and pieces of \AllTeX{}}

\Question[Q-dvi]{What is a \acro{DVI} file?}

`\acro{DVI}' is supposed to be an acronym for
\acro{D}e\acro{V}ice-\acro{I}ndependent, meaning that the file may be
processed for printing or viewing on most kinds of typographic output
device or display.

A \acro{DVI} file (that is, a file with the type or extension
\extension{dvi}) is the main output file of ``original'' \tex{} (later
\tex{}-like systems, such as \Qref*{\pdftex{}}{Q-whatpdftex} may use
other formats).

A \acro{DVI} file contains all the information that is needed for
printing or previewing, except for the actual bitmaps or outlines of
fonts, and any material to be introduced by means of % !line break
\Qref*{\csx{special} commands}{Q-specials}.  Characters in the
\acro{DVI} file (representing glyphs for printing or display) appear
in an encoding determined in the document.

Any \TeX{} input file should produce the same \acro{DVI} file
regardless of which implementation of \TeX{} is used to produce it.

An \acro{DVI} file may be processed by a \Qref*{DVI driver}{Q-driver}
to produce further output designed specifically for a particular
printer, or for output in another format (for distribution), or it may
be used by a previewer for display on a computer screen.

Note that \Qref*{\xetex{}}{Q-xetex} (released some time after
\pdftex{}) uses an ``extended \acro{DVI} format'' (\acro{XDV}) to send
its output to a close-coupled \Qref*{\acro{DVI} driver}{Q-driver},
\ProgName{xdvipdfmx}.

The canonical reference for the structure of a \acro{DVI} file is the
source of Knuth's program \ProgName{dvitype} (whose original purpose,
as its name implies, was to view the content of a \acro{DVI} file).
A partially complete ``standard'' for the way they should be
processed may offer further enlightenment.
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[\nothtml{rmfamily}DVI processing standard]\CTANref{dvistd}
\item[dvitype]\CTANref{dvitype}
\end{ctanrefs}
\LastEdit{2013-03-15}

\Question[Q-driver]{What is a \acro{DVI} driver?}

A \acro{DVI} driver is a program that takes as input a
\Qref*{\acro{DVI} file}{Q-dvi}
and (usually) produces a file in a format that something \emph{other}
than a \TeX{}-related program can process.

A driver may be designed for producing output for printing (e.g.,
\PS{}), for later processing (e.g., \PS{} for inclusion in a later
document), or for document exchange (e.g., \acro{PDF}).

As well as the \acro{DVI} file, the driver typically also needs font
information.  Font information may be held as bitmaps or as outlines,
or simply as a set of pointers into the fonts that a printer itself
provides.  Each driver will expect the font information in a particular
form.

For more information on the forms of font information, see
\Qref[questions]{\acro{PK} files}{Q-pk},
% ! line break
\Qref[]{\acro{TFM} files}{Q-tfm},
\Qref[]{virtual fonts}{Q-virtualfonts}
and \Qref[]{Using \PS{} fonts with \TeX{}}{Q-usepsfont}.
\LastEdit{2011-10-10}

\Question[Q-pk]{What are \acro{PK} files?}

\acro{PK} files (packed raster) are the canonical form of \tex{} font
bitmaps.  The output from \Qref*{\MF{}}{Q-useMF} includes a generic
font (\acro{GF}) file and the utility \ProgName{gftopk} produces a
\acro{PK} file from that.

There are potentially a lot of \acro{PK} files, as one
is needed for each font: that is for each magnification of each
design (point) size for each weight for each font in each family.

Further, since the \acro{PK} files for one printer do not necessarily
work well for another, the whole set needs to be duplicated for each
printer type at a site.

While this menagerie of bitmaps can (in principle) provide fonts that
are closely matched to the capabilities of each printer, the size of
the collection (and the resulting difficulty of maintaining it) has
been a potent driver to the move towards outline fonts such as
\Qref*{Adobe Type 1 fonts}{Q-adobetypen}.
\LastEdit{2012-10-20}

\Question[Q-tfm]{What are \acro{TFM} files?}

\acro{TFM} is an acronym for `\TeX{} Font Metrics'; \acro{TFM} files hold
information about the sizes of the characters of the font in question,
and about ligatures and kerns within that font.  One \acro{TFM} file is
needed for each font used by \TeX{}, that is for each design (point)
size for each weight for each family; each \acro{TFM} file serves for all
magnifications of `its' font, so that there are (typically) fewer
\acro{TFM} files than there are \Qref*{\acro{PK}}{Q-pk} files.  \TeX{},
\LaTeX{}, etc.,\@
themselves need only know about the sizes of characters and their
interactions with each other, but not what characters look like.  By
contrast, \acro{TFM} files are not, in principle, needed by the
\acro{DVI} driver, which only needs to know about the glyphs that each
character selects, so as to print or display them.

Note that TrueType and OpenType fonts contain the necessary metrics,
so that \Qref{\xetex{}}{Q-xetex} and \Qref{\luatex{}}{Q-luatex}, using
such fonts, have no need of \acro{TFM} files.  A corollary of this is
that setting up fonts for use by these engines is far \emph{easier}.
\LastEdit{2012-10-20}

\Question[Q-virtualfonts]{What are virtual fonts?}

Virtual fonts provide a means of collecting bits and pieces together
to make the glyphs of a font: the bits and pieces may be glyphs from
``other'' fonts, rules and other ``basic'' typesetting commands, and
the positioning information that specifies how everything comes
together.

An early instance of something like virtual fonts for \TeX{} was
implemented by David Fuchs to use an unusual printer.  However, for
practical purposes for the rest of us, virtual fonts date from when Knuth
specified a format and wrote some support software, in 1989 (he
published an % ! line break
\href{http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb11-1/tb27knut.pdf}{article in \textsl{TUGboat}}
at the time; a plain text copy is available on \acro{CTAN}).

Virtual fonts provide a way of telling \TeX{} about something more
complicated than just a one-to-one character mapping.  \TeX{} reads a
\acro{TFM} file of the font, just as before, but the \acro{DVI}
processor will read the \acro{VF} and use its content to specify how
each glyph is to be processed.

The virtual font may contain commands:
\begin{itemize}
\item to `open' one or more (real) fonts for subsequent use,
\item to remap a glyph from one of the (real) fonts for use in the
  virtual font,
\item to build up a more complicated effect (using \acro{DVI} commands).
\end{itemize}

% !this has to be generated as a new paragraph by the translator, so
% leave the blank line in place
In practice, the most common use of virtual fonts is to remap
Adobe Type 1 fonts (see \Qref[question]{font metrics}{Q-metrics}),
though there has also been useful useful work building `fake' maths
fonts (by bundling glyphs from several fonts into a single virtual
font).  Virtual Computer Modern fonts, making a % ! line break
\Qref*{Cork encoded}{Q-ECfonts} font from Knuth's originals by using
remapping and fragments of \acro{DVI} for single-glyph `accented
characters', were the first ``Type~1 format'' Cork-encoded Computer
Modern fonts available.

Virtual fonts are normally created in a single \acro{ASCII} \acro{VPL}
(Virtual Property List) file, which includes two sets of information.
The \ProgName{vptovf} utility will use the \acro{VPL} file to create
the binary \acro{TFM} and \acro{VF} files.

A ``how-to'' document, explaining how to generate a \acro{VPL},
describes the endless hours of fun that may be had, doing the job by
hand.  Despite the pleasures to be had, the commonest way (nowadays)
of generating an \acro{VPL} file is to use the 
\ProgName{fontinst} package, which is described in more detail
\htmlonly{together with the discussion of}
\Qref[in answer]{\PS{} font metrics}{Q-metrics}.
\Package{Qdtexvpl} is another utility for creating ad-hoc virtual
fonts (it uses \TeX{} to parse a description of the virtual font, and
\ProgName{qdtexvpl} itself processes the resulting \acro{DVI} file).
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[fontinst]\CTANref{fontinst}
\item[\nothtml{\rmfamily}Knuth on virtual fonts]\CTANref{vf-knuth}
\item[\nothtml{\rmfamily}Virtual fonts ``how to'']\CTANref{vf-howto}
\item[qdtexvpl]\CTANref{qdtexvpl}
\end{ctanrefs}
\LastEdit{2012-10-20}

\Question[Q-whatmacros]{What are (\TeX{}) macros}

\TeX{} is a \emph{macro processor}: this is a computer-science-y term
meaning ``text expander'' (more or less); \TeX{} typesets text as it
goes along, but \emph{expands} each macro it finds.  \TeX{}'s macros
may include instructions to \TeX{} itself, on top of the simple text
generation one might expect.

Macros are a \emph{good thing}, since they allow the user to
manipulate documents according to context.  For example, the macro
\csx{TeX} is usually defined to produce ``TEX'' with the `E' lowered
(the original idea was Knuth's),
but in these \acro{FAQ}s the default definition of the macro is
overridden, and it simply expands to the letters ``TeX''.  (\emph{You}
may not think this a good thing, but the author of the macros has his
reasons~-- see \Qref[question]{\TeX{}-related logos}{Q-logos}.)

Macro names are conventionally built from a \texttt{\textbackslash }
followed by a sequence of letters, which may be upper or lower case
(as in \csx{TeX}, mentioned above).  They may also be % ! line break
\texttt{\textbackslash \meta{any single character}}, which allows all
sorts of oddities (many built in to most \TeX{} macro sets, all the
way up from the apparently simple `\csx{ }' meaning ``insert a space
here'').

Macro programming can be a complicated business, but at their very
simplest they need little introduction~--- you'll hardly need to be
told that:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\def\foo{bar}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
replaces each instance of \csx{foo} with the text ``bar''.  The
command \csx{def} is \plaintex{} syntax for defining commands;
\LaTeX{} offers a macro \csx{newcommand} that goes some way towards
protecting users from themselves, but basically does the same thing:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand{\foo}{bar}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
Macros may have ``arguments'' , which are used to substitute for marked
bits of the macro expansion:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\def\foo#1{This is a #1 bar}
...
\foo{2/4}.
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
which produces:
\begin{quote}
  This is a 2/4 bar.
\end{quote}
or, in \LaTeX{} speak:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\newcommand{\foo}[1]{This is a #1 bar}
...
\foo{3/4}.
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
which produces:
\begin{quote}
  This is 3/4 bar.
\end{quote}
(\latex{} users waltz through life, perhaps?)

You will have noticed that the arguments, above, were enclosed in
braces (\texttt{\obracesymbol{}\dots{}\cbracesymbol{}}); this is the
normal way of typing arguments, though \TeX{} is enormously flexible,
and you may find all sorts of other ways of passing arguments (if you
stick with it).

Macro writing can get very complicated, very quickly.  If you are a
beginner \AllTeX{} programmer, you are well advised to read something
along the lines of the \Qref*{\TeX{}book}{Q-tex-books}; once you're under
way, \Qref*{\TeX{} by Topic}{Q-ol-books} is possibly a more satisfactory
choice.  Rather a lot of the answers in these \acro{FAQ}s tell you
about various issues of how to write macros.
\LastEdit{2011-10-12}

\Question[Q-specials]{\csx{special} commands}

\TeX{} provides the means to express things that device drivers can
do, but about which \TeX{} itself knows nothing.  For example, \TeX{}
itself knows nothing about how to include \PS{} figures into
documents, or how to set the colour of printed text; but some device
drivers do.

Instructions for such things are introduced to your document by means
of \csx{special} commands; all that \TeX{} does with these commands is
to expand their 
arguments and then pass the command to the \acro{DVI} file.  In most
cases, there are macro packages provided (often with the driver) that
provide a human-friendly interface to the \csx{special}; for example,
there's little point including a figure if you leave no gap for it in
your text, and changing colour proves to be a particularly fraught
operation that requires real wizardry.  \LaTeXe{}
has standard graphics and colour packages that make figure inclusion,
rotation and scaling, and colour typesetting relatively
straightforward, despite the rather daunting \csx{special} commands
involved.  (\CONTeXT{} provides similar support, though not by way of
packages.)

The allowable arguments of \csx{special} depend on the device driver
you're using.  Apart from the examples above, there are \csx{special}
commands in the em\TeX{} drivers (e.g., \ProgName{dvihplj}, \ProgName{dviscr},
\emph{etc}.)~that will draw lines at arbitrary orientations, and
commands in \ProgName{dvitoln03} that permit the page to be set in
landscape orientation.

Note that \csx{special} behaves rather differently in \PDFTeX{}, since
there is no device driver around.  There \emph{is} a concept of
\acro{PDF} specials, but in most cases \csx{special} will provoke a
warning when used in \PDFTeX{}.
\LastEdit{2011-10-15}

\Question[Q-write]{Writing (text) files from \tex{}}

\TeX{} allows you to write to output files from within your document.
The facility is handy in many circumstances, but it is vital for
several of the things \latex{} (and indeed almost any higher-level
\tex{}-based macro package) does for you.

The basic uses of writing to an external file are ``obvious''~---
remembering titles of sections for a table of contents, remembering
label names and corresponding section or figure numbers, all for a
later run of your document.  However, the ``non-obvious'' thing is
easy to forget: that page numbers, in \tex{}, are slippery beasts, and
have to be captured with some care.  The trick is that \csx{write}
operations are only executed as the page is sent to the \acro{DVI}
or \acro{PDF} file.  Thus, if you arrange that your page-number macro
(\csx{thepage}, in \latex{}) is not expanded until the page is
written, then the number written is correct, since that time is where
\tex{} guarantees the page number tallies with the page being sent
out.

Now, there are times when you want to write something straight away:
for example, to interact with the user.  \TeX{} captures that
requirement, too, with the primitive command \csx{immediate}:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\immediate\write\terminal{I'm waiting...}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
writes a ``computer-irritates-user'' message, to the terminal.

Which brings us to the reason for that \csx{terminal}.  \TeX{} can
``\csx{write}'' up to 16 streams simultaneously, and that argument to
\csx{write} says which is to be used.  Macro packages provide the
means of allocating streams for your use: \plaintex{} provides a macro
\csx{newwrite} (used as ``\csx{newwrite}\csx{streamname}'', which sets
\csx{streamname} as the stream number).  In fact, \csx{terminal} (or
its equivalent) is the first output stream ever set up (in most macro
packages): it is never attached to a file, and if \tex{} is asked to
write to \emph{any} stream that isn't attached to a file it will send
the output to the terminal (and the log).
\LastEdit{2011-10-15}

\Question[Q-spawnprog]{Spawning programs from \AllTeX{}: \csx{write18}}

The \tex{} \Qref*{\csx{write} primitive instruction}{Q-write} is used
to write to different file `streams'; TeX refers to each open file by
a number, not by a file name (although most of the time we hide this).
Originally, \tex{} would write to a file connected to a stream
numbered 0--15.  More recently, a special ``stream 18'' has been
implemented: it is not writing to a file, but rather tells TeX to ask
the operating system to do something.  To run a command, we put it as
the argument to \csx{write18}.  So to run the \progname{epstopdf}
utility on a file with name stored as \csx{epsfilename}, we would
write:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\write18{epstopdf \epsfilename}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
When using something like the \Package{epstopdf} package, the `stream'
write operation is hidden away and you don't need to worry about the
exact way it's done.

However, there is a security issue. If you download some \alltex{} code from
the Internet, can you be sure that there is not some command in it
(perhaps in a hidden way) to do stuff that might be harmful to your
computer (let's say: delete everything on the hard disk!)?  In the
face of this problem, both \miktex{} and \tex{}~Live have, for some
time, disabled \csx{write18} by default.  To turn the facility on,
both distributions support an additional argument when starting \tex{}
from the command shell:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
(pdf)(la)tex --shell-escape <file>
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
The problem with this is that many people use \alltex{} via a graphical
editor, so to use \csx{write18} for a file the editor's settings must
be changed.  Of course, the settings need restoring after the file is
processed: you defeat the point of the original protection, that way.

The latest \miktex{} (version 2.9), and recent \tex{}~Live (from the
2010 release) get
around this by having a special ``limited'' version of \csx{write18}
enabled `out of the box'.  The idea is to allow only a pre-set list of
commands (for example, \BibTeX{}, \progname{epstopdf}, \tex{} itself,
and so on).  Those on the list are regarded as safe enough to allow,
whereas anything else (for example deleting files) still needs to be
authorised by the user. This seems to be a good balance: most people
most of the time will not need to worry about \csx{write18} at all,
but it will be available for things like \Package{epstopdf}.

Note that the \tex{} system may tell you that the mechanism is in use:
\begin{wideversion}
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
This is pdfTeX, Version 3.1415926-1.40.11 (TeX Live 2010)
 restricted \write18 enabled.
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
\end{wideversion}
\begin{narrowversion}
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
This is pdfTeX, Version 3.1415926-1.40.11
                              (TeX Live 2010)
 restricted \write18 enabled.
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
\end{narrowversion}
when it starts.
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[epstopdf.sty]Distributed with Heiko Oberdiek's packages
  \CTANref{oberdiek}[epstopdf-pkg]
\end{ctanrefs}
\LastEdit{2012-12-03}

\Question[Q-hyphen]{How does hyphenation work in \TeX{}?}

Everyone knows what hyphenation is: we see it in most books we read,
and (if we're alert) will spot occasional ridiculous mis-hyphenation
(at one time, British newspapers were a fertile source).

Hyphenation styles are culturally-determined, and the same language
may be hyphenated differently in different countries~--- for example,
British and American styles of hyphenation of English are very
different.  As a result, a typesetting system that is not restricted
to a single language at a single locale needs to be able to change its
hyphenation rules from time to time.

\TeX{} uses a pretty good system for hyphenation (originally designed
by Frank Liang~--- you may view his % ! line break
\href{http://tug.org/docs/liang/}{Ph.D.\ thesis} online) and while
it's capable of missing ``sensible'' hyphenation points, it seldom
selects grossly wrong ones.  The
algorithm matches candidates for hyphenation against a set of
``hyphenation patterns''.  The candidates for hyphenation must be
sequences of letters (or other single characters that \TeX{} may be
persuaded to think of as letters).  Non-letters interrupt hyphenation;
this applies to \TeX{}'s \csx{accent} primitive (as in `syst\`eme')
just as much as the exclamation in`syst!eme'.

(Hyphenation takes place on the characters ``sent to the printer''.
The problem with \csx{accent} is avoided~---in \latex{}~--- by the use
of the \Package{fontenc} package, as discussed in % ! line break
``\Qref*{Accented words aren t hyphenated}{Q-hyphenaccents}''.)

Sets of hyphenation patterns are usually derived from analysis of
a list of valid hyphenations (the process of derivation, using a tool
called \Package{patgen}, is not ordinarily a sport to be played by
ordinary mortals).

The patterns for the languages a \TeX{} system is going to deal with
may only be loaded when the system is installed.  To change the set of
hyphenation patterns recognised by a \tex{}-based or \xetex{} system,
a \Qref*{partial reinstallation}{Q-newlang} is necessary (note that 
\Qref*{\luatex{}}{Q-luatex} relaxes this constraint).

\TeX{} provides two ``user-level'' commands for control of
hyphenation: \csx{language} (which selects a hyphenation style), and
\csx{hyphenation} (which gives explicit instructions to the hyphenation
engine, overriding the effect of the patterns).

The ordinary \LaTeX{} user need not worry about \csx{language}, since
it is very thoroughly managed by the \Package{babel} package; use of
\csx{hyphenation} is discussed in
\begin{wideversion}
  the context of
\end{wideversion}
% beware line wrap
\Qref[question]{hyphenation failure}{Q-nohyph}.
\LastEdit{2012-12-03}

\Question[Q-clsvpkg]{What are \LaTeX{} classes and packages?}

\latex{} aims to be a general-purpose document processor.  Such an aim
could be achieved by a selection of instructions which would enable
users to use \tex{} primitives, but such a procedure is considered too
inflexible (and probably too daunting for ordinary users), and so the
designers of \latex{} created a model which offered an
\emph{abstraction} of the design of documents.  Obviously, not all
documents can look the same (even with the defocussed eye of
abstraction), so the model uses \emph{classes} of document.  Base
\latex{} offers five classes of document: \Class{book},
\Class{report}, \Class{report}, \Class{article} and \Class{letter}.
For each class, \latex{} provides a \emph{class file}; the user
arranges to use it via a \csx{documentclass} command at the top of the
document.  So a document starting
\begin{quote}
  \cmdinvoke{documentclass}{article}
\end{quote}
may be called ``an \emph{article} document''.

This is a good scheme, but it has a glaring flaw: the actual
typographical designs provided by the \latex{} class files aren't
widely liked.  The way around this is to \emph{refine} the class.  To
refine a class, a programmer may write a new class file that loads an
existing class, and then does its own thing with the document design.

If the user finds such a refined class, all is well, but if not, the
common way is to load a \emph{package} (or several).

\latex{} provides rather few package files, but there are lots of them
to be found on the archives by a wide variety of authors; several
packages are designed just to adjust the design of a document~---
using such packages achieves what the programmer might have achieved
by refining the class.

Other packages provide new facilities: for example, the
\Package{graphics} package (actually provided by the \latex{} team)
allows the user to load externally-provided graphics into a document,
and the \Package{hyperref} package enables the user to construct
hyper-references within a document.

On disc, class and package files only appear different by virtue of
their name ``extension''~--- class files are called \File{*.cls} while
package files are called \File{*.sty}.  Thus we find that the \LaTeX{}
standard \Class{article} class is represented on disc by a file called
\File{article.cls}, while the \Package{hyperref} package is
represented on disc by a file called \File{hyperref.sty}.

The class vs.~package distinction was not clear in \LaTeXo{}~---
everything was called a style (``document style'' or ``document style
option'').  It doesn't really matter that the nomenclature has
changed: the important requirement is to understand what other people
are talking about.

\Question[Q-whatenv]{What are \latex{} ``environments''}

While \tex{} makes direct provision for commands, \latex{} adds a
concept of ``environment''; environments perform an action on a block
(of something or other) rather than than just doing something at one
place in your document.

A totally trivial environment could change the font in use for a chunk
of text, as
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\newenvironment{monoblock}%
  {\ttfamily}%
  {}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
which defines a \environment{monoblock} which may be used as
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\begin{monoblock}
  some text set in monospace
\end{monoblock}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
which will look like:
\begin{quote}
  \texttt{some text set in monospace}
\end{quote}
so it is a particularly simple example.  A rather complicated
environment is introduced by \cmdinvoke{begin}{document}; it looks
simple, but needs all sorts of special \tex{} code to make it work
`transparently'; most environments are more elaborate than
\environment{monoblock} and \emph{much} simpler than
\environment{document}.

An environment puts its content inside a \tex{} \emph{group}, so that
commands used inside the environment don't `leak out'~--- the
\environment{monoblock} environment, above, restricts its effect to
its own contents (the stuff between the \cmdinvoke{begin}{monoblock}
and \cmdinvoke{end}{monoblock}), which is just what you need for this
sort of thing.

So that's ``simple'' environments; the \environment{monoblock}, above
doesn't actually gain us much over
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
{\ttfamily some text set in monospace}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
though in fact many useful environments are just as simple (to look
at).  Some, such as \environment{verbatim}, look simple but are
actually very tricky inside.

\latex{} also allows arguments to an environment:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\newenvironment{fontblock}[1]%
  {#1\selectfont}%
  {}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
and use of \environment{fontblock} as:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\begin{fontblock}{\ttfamily}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
would produce the same effect as the \environment{monoblock}
environment.

Environments may also have optional arguments, in much the same way as
commands:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\newenvironment{normaltext}[1][\itshape]%
  {#1}%
  {}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
which will ordinarily set its body in italic, but
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\begin{normaltext}[\ttfamily]
  ...
\end{normaltext}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
will observe its optional argument, and behave the same as the
\environment{monoblock} we started with.

Note that an environments argument(s) (mandatory or optional) are
\emph{not} passed to the `\csx{end}' text of the environment~--- that
is specified as a macro with no arguments, so that
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\newenvironment{normaltext}[1][\itshape]%
  {#1}%
  {\typeout{what was #1, again?}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
produces an error message
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
! Illegal parameter number in definition of \endnormaltext.
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
So, if you need to pass an environment argument to the end-code, you
have to wrap it in a macro of its own:
\begin{quote}
\begin{verbatim}
\newenvironment{normaltext}[1][Intro]%
  {#1%
   \newcommand{\foo}{#1}}%
  {\typeout{what was \foo{}, again?}
\end{verbatim}
\end{quote}
\LastEdit*{2013-02-20}

\Question[Q-dtx]{Documented \LaTeX{} sources (\extension{dtx} files)}

\LaTeXe{}, and most contributed macro packages, are now written in a
\Qref*{literate programming style}{Q-lit}, with source and
documentation in the
same file.  This format, known as `doc', in fact originated before the
days of the \LaTeX{} project as one of the ``Mainz'' series of
packages. A documented source file conventionally has the suffix
\extension{dtx}, and will normally be `stripped' before use with
\LaTeX{}; an installation file (\extension{ins}) is normally provided,
to automate this process of removing comments for speed of loading.
To read the comments, you can run \LaTeX{} on the
\extension{dtx} file to produce a nicely formatted version of the
documented code.  Several
packages can be included in one \extension{dtx} file (they're sorted
out by the \extension{ins} file), with conditional
sections, and there are facilities for indexes of macros, etc.

Anyone can write \extension{dtx} files; the format is explained in
\Qref*{The \LaTeX{} Companion}{Q-latex-books}, and a tutorial is available
from \acro{CTAN} (which comes with skeleton \extension{dtx} and
\extension{ins} files).

Composition of \extension{dtx} files is supported in \ProgName{emacs} by
\Qref*{\acro{AUC}-\TeX{}}{Q-editors}.

The (unix-based) script \ProgName{dtxgen} generates a proforma basic
\extension{dtx} file, which could be useful when starting a new
project.

Another route to an \extension{dtx} file is to write the
documentation and the code separately, and then to combine them using
the \ProgName{makedtx} system.  This technique has particular value in
that the documentation file can be used separately to generate
\acro{HTML} output; it is often quite difficult to make % ! line break
\Qref*{\LaTeX{} to \acro{HTML} conversion}{Q-LaTeX2HTML} tools deal
with \extension{dtx} files, since they use an unusual class file.

The \ProgName{sty2dtx} system goes one step further: it attempts to
create a \extension{dtx} file from a `normal' \extension{sty} file
with comments.  It works well, in some circumstances, but can become
confused by comments that aspire to ``structure'' (e.g., tabular
material, as in many older packages' file headers).

The \extension{dtx} files are not used by \LaTeX{} after they have been
processed to produce \extension{sty} or \extension{cls} (or whatever)
files.  They need not be kept with the working system; however, for
many packages the \extension{dtx} file is the primary source of
documentation, so you may want to keep \extension{dtx} files elsewhere.

An interesting sideline to the story of \extension{dtx} files is the
\Package{docmfp} package, which extends the model of the \Package{doc}
package to
\begin{flatversion}
  \MF{} and \MP{} (\Qref[see questions]{}{Q-MF} and \Qref[\nothtml]{}{Q-MP})
\end{flatversion}
\begin{hyperversion}
  \Qref{\MF{}}{Q-MF} and \Qref{\MP{}}{Q-MP},
\end{hyperversion}
thus permitting documented distribution of bundles containing code for
\MF{} and \MP{} together with related \LaTeX{} code.
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[AUC-TeX]\CTANref{auctex}
\item[clsguide.pdf]\CTANref{clsguide}
\item[docmfp.sty]\CTANref{docmfp}
\item[docstrip.tex]Part of the \LaTeX{} distribution
\item[DTX tutorial]\CTANref{dtxtut}
\item[dtxgen]\CTANref{dtxgen}
\item[makedtx]\CTANref{makedtx}
\item[sty2dtx]\CTANref{sty2dtx}
\end{ctanrefs}
\LastEdit{2011-06-01}

\Question[Q-whatenc]{What are encodings?}

Let's start by defining two concepts, the \emph{character} and the
\emph{glyph}.
The character is the abstract idea of the `atom' of a
language or other dialogue: so it might be a letter in an alphabetic
language, a syllable in a syllabic language, or an ideogram in an
ideographic language.  The glyph is the mark created on screen or
paper which represents a character.  Of
course, if reading is to be possible, there must be some agreed
relationship between the glyph and the character, so while the precise
shape of the glyph can be affected by many other factors, such as the
capabilities of the writing medium and the designer's style, the
essence of the underlying character must be retained.

Whenever a computer has to represent characters, someone has to define
the relationship between a set of numbers and the characters they
represent.  This is the essence of an encoding: it is a mapping
between a set of numbers and a set of things to be represented.

\TeX{} of course deals in encoded characters all the time: the
characters presented to it in its input are encoded, and it emits
encoded characters in its \acro{DVI} or \acro{PDF} output.  These
encodings have rather different properties.

The \TeX{} input stream was pretty unruly back in the days when Knuth
first implemented the language.  Knuth himself prepared documents on
terminals that produced all sorts of odd characters, and as a result
\TeX{} contains some provision for translating its input (however
encoded) to something regular.  Nowadays, 
the operating system translates keystrokes into a code appropriate for
the user's language: the encoding used is usually a national or
international standard, though some operating systems use ``code
pages'' (as defined by Microsoft).  These standards and code pages often
contain characters that may not appear in the \TeX{} system's input
stream.  Somehow, these characters have to be dealt with~--- so
an input character like ``\'e'' needs to be interpreted by \TeX{} in
a way that that at least mimics the way it interprets ``\csx{'}\texttt{e}''.  

The \TeX{} output stream is in a somewhat different situation:
characters in it are to be used to select glyphs from the fonts to be
used.  Thus the encoding of the output stream is notionally a font
encoding (though the font in question may be a
% beware line break (twice)
\nothtml{virtual one~--- see }%
\Qref[question]{virtual font}{Q-virtualfonts}).  In principle, a
fair bit of what appears in the output stream could be direct
transcription of what arrived in the input, but the output stream
also contains the product of commands in the input, and translations
of the input such as ligatures like %
\texttt{fi}\nothtml{\ensuremath\Rightarrow``fi''}.

Font encodings became a hot topic when the
\Qref*{Cork encoding}{Q-ECfonts}
appeared, because of the possibility of suppressing
\csx{accent} commands in the output stream (and hence improving the
quality of the hyphenation of text in inflected languages, which is
interrupted by the \csx{accent} commands~--- see
% beware line break
\Qref[question]{``how does hyphenation work''}{Q-hyphen}).
To take advantage of the diacriticised characters represented in the
fonts, it is necessary to arrange that whenever the
command sequence ``\csx{'}\texttt{e}'' has been input
(explicitly, or implicitly via the sort of mapping of input mentioned
above), the character that codes the position of the ``\'e'' glyph is
used.

Thus we could have the odd arrangement that the diacriticised character in
the \TeX{} input stream is translated into \TeX{} commands that would
generate something looking like the input character; this sequence of
\TeX{} commands is then translated back again into a single
diacriticised glyph as the output is created.  This is in fact
precisely what the \LaTeX{} packages \Package{inputenc} and
\Package{fontenc} do, if operated in tandem on (most) characters in
the \acro{ISO}~Latin-1 input encoding and the \acro{T}1 font encoding.
At first sight, it seems eccentric to have the first package do a thing, and
the second precisely undo it, but it doesn't always happen that way:
most font encodings can't match the corresponding input encoding
nearly so well, and the two packages provide the sort of symmetry the
\LaTeX{} system needs.

\Question[Q-ECfonts]{What are the \acro{EC} fonts?}

A font provides a number of \emph{glyphs}. In order that the glyphs
may be printed, they are \Qref*{\emph{encoded}}{Q-whatenc}, and the
encoding is used as an index into tables within the font.  For various
reasons, Knuth chose deeply eccentric encodings for his Computer
Modern family of fonts; in particular, he chose different encodings
for different fonts, so that the application using the fonts has to
remember which font of the family it's using before selecting a
particular glyph.

When \TeX{} version 3 arrived, most of the drivers for the
eccentricity of Knuth's encodings went away, and at \acro{TUG}'s Cork
meeting, an encoding for a set of 256 glyphs, for use in \TeX{} text,
was defined.  The intention was that these glyphs should cover `most'
European languages that use Latin alphabets, in the sense of including
all accented letters needed.  (Knuth's \acro{CMR} fonts missed things
necessary for Icelandic and Polish, for example, which the Cork fonts
do have, though even Cork encoding's coverage isn't complete.)
\latex{} refers to the Cork encoding as \acro{T}1, and provides the
means to use fonts thus encoded to avoid problems with the interaction
of accents and hyphenation % ! line break
(see \Qref[question]{hyphenation of accented words}{Q-hyphenaccents}).

The first \MF{}-fonts to conform to the Cork encoding were the \acro{EC}
fonts. They look \acro{CM}-like, though their metrics differ from \acro{CM}-font
metrics in several areas.  They have long been regarded as `stable' (in
the same sense that the \acro{CM} fonts are stable: their metrics are
unlikely ever to change).  Each \acro{EC} font is, of course, roughly twice the
size of the corresponding \acro{CM} font, and there are far more of them than
there are CM fonts.  The simple number of fonts proved problematic in
the production of Type~1 versions of the fonts, but \acro{EC} or
\acro{EC}-equivalent fonts in Type~1 or TrueType form (the latter only from
\begin{wideversion}
  \Qref{commercial suppliers}{Q-commercial}).
\end{wideversion}
\begin{narrowversion}
  % ( <- paren matching
  commercial suppliers~--- \Qref{question}{Q-commercial}).
\end{narrowversion}
Free \Qref*{auto-traced versions}{Q-textrace}~--- the \acro{CM}-super and
the \acro{LGC} fonts, and the Latin Modern series (rather directly generated
from Metafont sources), are available.

Note that the Cork encoding doesn't cover mathematics (so that no
``T1-encoded'' font families can not support it).  If you're using
Computer-Modern-alike fonts, this doesn't actually matter: your system
will have the original Computer Modern mathematical fonts (or the
those distributed with the Latin Modern set), which cover `basic' \TeX{}
mathematics; more advanced mathematics are likely to need separate
fonts anyway.  Suitable mathematics fonts for use with other font
families are discussed in % ! line break 
``\Qref*{choice of scalable fonts}{Q-psfchoice}''.

The \acro{EC} fonts are distributed with a set of `Text Companion' (\acro{TC}) fonts
that provide glyphs for symbols commonly used in text. The \acro{TC} fonts
are encoded according to the \latex{} \acro{TS}1 encoding, and are not
necessarily as `stable' are the \acro{EC} fonts are.  Note that modern
distributions tend not to distribute the \acro{EC} fonts in outline format, but
rather to provide Latin Modern for \acro{T}1-encoded Computer Modern-style
fonts.  This can sometimes cause confusion when users are recompiling
old documents.

The Cork encoding is also implemented by virtual fonts provided in the
\acro{PSNFSS} system, for Adobe Type 1 fonts, and also by most other such
fonts that have been developed (or otherwise made available) for use
with \alltex{}. 

Note that \acro{T}1 (and other eight-bit font encodings) are superseded in
the developing \TeX{}-family members \Qref*{\xetex{}}{Q-xetex} and
\Qref*{\luatex{}}{Q-luatex}, which use Unicode as their base encoding,
and use Unicode-encoded fonts (typically in \FontFormat{ttf} or
\FontFormat{otf} formats).  The \Package{cm-unicode} fonts carry the
flag in this arena, along with the Latin Modern set.
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[CM-super fonts]\CTANref{cm-super}
\item[CM-LGC fonts]\CTANref{cm-lgc}
\item[CM unicode fonts]\CTANref{cm-unicode}
\item[EC and TC fonts]\CTANref{ec}
\item[Latin Modern fonts]\CTANref{lm}
\end{ctanrefs}

\Question[Q-unicode]{Unicode and \tex{}}

Unicode is a character code scheme that has the capacity to express
the text of the languages of the world, as well as important symbols
(including mathematics).  Any coding scheme that is directly
applicable to \tex{} may be expressed in single bytes (expressing up
to 256 characters); Unicode characters may require several bytes, and
the scheme may express a very large number of characters.

For ``old-style'' applications (\tex{} or \pdftex{}) to deal with
Unicode input, the sequence of bytes to make up Unicode character are
processed by a set of macros that deliver a glyph number in an
appropriate font.  The macros that read these bytes is complicated,
and manifests as \pkgoption{utf8} option for the \latex{} distribution
\Package{inputenc} package; the coverage of that option is limited to
Unicode characters that can be represented using ``\latex{} standard
encodings''.  The separate package \Package{ucs} provides wider, but
less robust, coverage via an \Package{inputenc} option
\pkgoption{utf8x}.  As a general rule, you should never use
\pkgoption{utf8x} until you have convinced yourself that
\pkgoption{utf8} can not do the job for you.

`Modern' \tex{}-alike applications, \Qref*{\xetex{}}{Q-xetex} and
\Qref*{\luatex{}}{Q-luatex} read their input using \acro{UTF}-8
representations of Unicode as standard.  They also use TrueType or
OpenType fonts for output; each such font has tables that tell the
application which part(s) of the Unicode space it covers; the tables
enable the engines to decide which font to use for which character
(assuming there is any choice at all).
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[inputenc.sty]Part of the \CTANref{latex} distribution
\item[ucs.sty]\CTANref{ucs}
\end{ctanrefs}
\LastEdit{2012-04-20}

\Question[Q-tds]{What is the \acro{TDS}?}

\acro{TDS} is an acronym for ``\TeX{} Directory Structure''; it
specifies a standard way of organising all the \TeX{}-related files on
a computer system.

Most modern distributions arrange their \tex{} files in conformance
with the \acro{TDS}, using both a `distribution' directory tree and a
(set of) `local' directory trees, each containing \TeX{}-related
files.  The \acro{TDS} recommends the name \texttt{texmf} for the name
of the root directory (folder) of an hierarchy; in practice there are
typically several such trees, each of which has a name that compounds
that (e.g., \texttt{texmf-dist}, \texttt{texmf-var}).

Files supplied as part of the distribution are put into the
distribution's tree, but the location of the distribution's hierarchy is
system dependent.  (On a Unix system it might be at
\path{/usr/share/texmf} or \path{/opt/texmf}, or a similar location.)

There may be more than one `local' hierarchy in which additional files
can be stored.  An installation will also typically offer a local
hierarchy, while each user may have an individual local hierarchy.

The \acro{TDS} itself is published as the output of a \acro{TUG} % ! line break
\Qref*{Technical Working Group}{Q-TUG*}.  You may browse an
\href{http://tug.org/tds/}{on-line version} of the standard, and
copies in several other formats (including source) are available on
\acro{CTAN}.
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[\nothtml{\rmfamily}\acro{TDS} specification]\CTANref{tds}
\end{ctanrefs}

\Question[Q-eps]{What is ``Encapsulated \PS{}'' (``\acro{EPS}'')?}

\PS{} has been for many years a \emph{lingua franca} of powerful
printers (though modern high-quality printers now tend to require some
constrained form of Adobe Acrobat, instead); since \PS{} is also a
powerful graphical programming language, it is commonly used as an
output medium for drawing (and other) packages.

However, since \PS{} \emph{is} such a powerful language, some
rules need to be imposed, so that the output drawing may be included
in a document as a figure without ``leaking'' (and thereby destroying
the surrounding document, or failing to draw at all).

Appendix \acro{H} of the \PS{} Language Reference Manual (second
and subsequent editions), specifies a set of rules for \PS{} to
be used as figures in this way.  The important features are:
\begin{itemize}
\item certain ``structured comments'' are required; important ones are
  the identification of the file type, and information about the
  ``bounding box'' of the figure (i.e., the minimum rectangle
  enclosing it);
\item some commands are forbidden~--- for example, a \texttt{showpage}
  command will cause the image to disappear, in most \TeX{}-output
  environments; and
\item ``preview information'' is permitted, for the benefit of things
  such as word processors that don't have the ability to draw
  \PS{} in their own right~--- this preview information may be in
  any one of a number of system-specific formats, and any viewing
  program may choose to ignore it.
\end{itemize}
A \PS{} figure that conforms to these rules is said to be in
``Encapsulated \PS{}'' (\acro{EPS}) format.  Most \AllTeX{} packages for
including \PS{} are structured to use Encapsulated \PS{};
which of course leads to much hilarity as exasperated \AllTeX{} users
struggle to cope with the output of drawing software whose authors
don't know the rules.

\Question[Q-adobetypen]{Adobe font formats}
\keywords{type1 type3}

Adobe has specified a number of formats for files to represent fonts
in \PS{} files; this question doesn't attempt to be encyclopaedic, so
we only discuss the two formats most commonly encountered in the
\AllTeX{} context, types~1 and 3.  In particular, we don't discuss the
OpenType format, whose many advantages now becoming accessible to most
\AllTeX{} users (by means of
\begin{hyperversion}
  the widely-used \Qref{\xetex{}}{Q-xetex} and the more experimental
  \Qref{\LuaTeX{}}{Q-luatex}).
\end{hyperversion}
\begin{flatversion}
  the widely-used \xetex{}~--- see \Qref[question]{}{Q-xetex}~--- and
  the more experimental \LuaTeX{}~--- see \Qref[question]{}{Q-luatex}).
\end{flatversion}

Adobe Type~1 format specifies a means to represent outlines of the glyphs
in a font.  The `language' used is closely restricted, to ensure that
the font is rendered as quickly as possible.  (Or rather, as quickly
as possible with Adobe's technology at the time the specification was
written: the structure could well be different if it were specified
now.)  The format has long been the basis of the digital type-foundry
business, though nowadays most new fonts are released in OpenType format.

%% Type~1 fonts are directly supported by some operating system software,
%% and at least one \TeX{} system, the commercial % line break!
%% \Qref*{\YandY{} system}{Q-commercial}, bases its entire
%% operation on the use of Type~1 fonts.

In the \AllTeX{} context, Type~1 fonts are extremely important.  Apart
from their simple 
availability (there are thousands of commercial Type~1 text fonts around), the
commonest reader for \acro{PDF} files has long (in effect) \emph{insisted} on
their use (see below).

Type~3 fonts have a more forgiving specification.  A wide range of
\PS{} operators is permissible, including bitmap specifiers.  Type~3
is therefore the natural format to be used for programs such as
\ProgName{dvips} when they auto-generate something to represent
\MF{}-generated fonts in a \PS{} file.  It's Adobe Acrobat Viewer's
treatment of bitmap Type~3 fonts that has made direct \MF{} output
increasingly unattractive, in recent years.  If you have a \acro{PDF}
document in which the text looks fuzzy and uneven in Acrobat Reader,
ask Reader for the \texttt{File}\arrowhyph{}%
\texttt{Document Properties}\arrowhyph{}%
\texttt{Fonts ...}, and it will likely show some font or other as
``Type~3'' (usually with encoding ``Custom'').  The problem has
disappeared with version 6 of Acrobat Reader.  See % line break
\Qref[question]{\acro{PDF} quality}{Q-dvips-pdf} for a discussion of
the issue, and for ways of addressing it.

Type~3 fonts should not entirely be dismissed, however.  Acrobat
Reader's failure with them is entirely derived from its failure to use
the anti-aliasing techniques common in \TeX{}-ware.  Choose a
different set of \PS{} graphical operators, and you can make pleasing
Type~3 fonts that don't ``annoy'' Reader.  For example, you may not
change colour within a Type~1 font glyph, but there's no such
restriction on a Type~3 font, which opens opportunities for some
startling effects.

\Question[Q-resolns]{What are ``resolutions''?}

``Resolution'' is a word that is used with little concern for its
multiple meanings, in computer equipment marketing.  The word suggests
a measure of what an observer (perhaps the human eye) can resolve; yet
we regularly see advertisements for printers whose resolution is
1200dpi~--- far finer than the unaided human eye can distinguish.  The
advertisements are talking about the precision with which the printer
can place spots on the printed image, which affects the fineness of
the representation of fonts, and the accuracy of the placement of
glyphs and other marks on the page.

In fact, there are two sorts of ``resolution'' on the printed page
that we need to consider for \AllTeX{}'s purposes:
\begin{itemize}
\item the positioning accuracy, and
\item the quality of the fonts.
\end{itemize}
In the case where \AllTeX{} output is being sent direct to a printer,
in the printer's ``native'' language, it's plain that the \acro{DVI}
processor must know all such details, and must take detailed account
of both types of resolution.

In the case where output is being sent to an intermediate distribution
format, that has potential for printing (or displaying) we know not
where, the final translator, that connects to directly to the printer
or display, has the knowledge of the device's properties: the
\acro{DVI} processor need not know, and should not presume to guess.

Both \PS{} and \acro{PDF} output are in this category.  While \PS{} is
used less frequently for document distribution nowadays, it is
regularly used as the source for distillation into \acro{PDF}; and
\acro{PDF} is the workhorse of an enormous explosion of document
distribution.

Therefore, we need \acro{DVI} processors that will produce
``resolution independent'' \PS{} or \acro{PDF} output; of course, the
independence needs to extend to both forms of independence outlined
above.

Resolution-independence of fonts was for a  long time forced upon the
world by the feebleness of Adobe's \ProgName{Acrobat}
\ProgName{Reader} at dealing with bitmap files: a sequence of answers
starting with one aiming at the % ! line break
\Qref*{quality of \acro{PDF} from \PS{}}{Q-dvips-pdf} addresses
the problems that arise.

Resolution-independence of positioning is more troublesome:
\ProgName{dvips} is somewhat notorious for insisting on positioning to
the accuracy of the declared resolution of the printer.
One commonly-used approach is to declare a resolution of 8000 (``better
than any device''), and this is reasonably successful though it does
have its \Qref*{problems}{Q-8000}.

\Question[Q-fontname]{What is the ``Berry naming scheme''?}

In the olden days, \AllTeX{} distributions were limited by the
feebleness of file systems' ability to represent long names.  (The
\MSDOS{} file system was a particular bugbear: fortunately any current
Microsoft system allows rather more freedom to specify file names.
Sadly, the ISO~9660 standard for the structure of \CDROM{}s has a
similar failing, but that too has been modified by various extension
mechanisms.)

One area in which these short file names posed a particular problem
was that of file names for Type~1 fonts.
These fonts are distributed by their vendors with
pretty meaningless short names, and there's a natural ambition to
change the name to something that identifies the font somewhat
precisely.  Unfortunately, names such as ``BaskervilleMT'' are
already far beyond the abilities of the typical feeble file system,
and add the specifier of a font shape or variant, and the difficulties
spiral out of control.  Font companies deal with the issue by
inventing silly names, and providing a map file to show what the
``real'' names.  Thus the Monotype Corporation provides the
translations:
\begin{quote}
  \texttt{bas\_\_\_\_\_ BaskervilleMT}\\
  \texttt{basb\_\_\_\_ BaskervilleMT-Bold}\\
  \texttt{basbi\_\_\_ BaskervilleMT-BoldItalic}
\end{quote}
and so on.  These names could be used within \AllTeX{} programs,
except that they are not unique: there's nothing to stop Adobe using
`\texttt{bas\_\_\_\_\_}' for \emph{their} Baskerville font.

Thus arose the Berry naming scheme.

The basis of the scheme is to encode the meanings of the various parts
of the file's specification in an extremely terse way, so that enough
font names can be expressed even in impoverished file name-spaces.  The
encoding allocates one character to the font ``foundry'' (Adobe, Monotype,
and so on), two to the typeface name (Baskerville, Times Roman, and so
on), one to the weight, shape, and encoding and so on.  

The whole scheme is outlined in the \Package{fontname} distribution,
which includes extensive documentation and a set of tables of fonts
whose names have been systematised.
\begin{ctanrefs}
\item[fontname distribution]\CTANref{fontname}
\end{ctanrefs}

